Philosophy Papers

Philosophy papers are an unusual beast. By all appearances, they pass for typical humanities essays. But underneath lies a highly technical structure and a heavy reliance on logic and formal argument. They may feel foreign at first, but writing a philosophy paper is a fantastic way to explore what makes arguments solid—a skill that can be readily applied to other disciplines.

In some ways, the process of tutoring philosophy papers is easy because it molds immediately to the Socratic style of tutoring. The papers themselves actually mimic the back-and-forth of conversation, and asking probing questions is crucial. And because the subjects are so highly conceptual, anyone can tutor them.

On the other hand, the highly conceptual nature of the topics can seem scary to someone who has no background. Not to mention that the technical demands (many of which are left unsaid in assignments) feel awkward at first, and first-time writers and tutors often don’t know what they need to do in order to be successful.

Fortunately, these problems are all easily overcome. With the typical caveat that this model does not apply to all cases and the tutor should always defer to the specifics of the assignment, here’s a breakdown of the typical structure of a philosophy paper:

1. Reconstruction. In beginning essays, this part can actually consume up to two-thirds of the length of the essay, and is where the majority of points are won or lost. The goal is to “reconstruct,” in your own words, the argument of the philosopher at hand. This is intended to be the place to demonstrate your deep understanding of the argument—a crucial step before criticizing. It also allows the writer to structure the argument in such a way that she can pinpoint where the argument goes wrong (later in the essay). To tutor this section effectively, use your naiveté to your advantage and ask lots and lots of questions! The best reconstructions demonstrate thorough knowledge of the argument, so don’t hesitate to be a little pushy. Putting the argument in a formal, numbered format can also be helpful.

2. Objections and replies. This is the fun section, especially for tutors. Here, the author attempts to point out flaws in the philosopher’s argument, and then imagine what the philosopher might say in response. The strongest objections tend to be structured like conversations, sometimes literally going back and forth in a, “She would say, I would say” format. To tutor this section, play the other part! Say things like, “What problems do you see here?” “What might Descartes say in response? Does he address that elsewhere in the argument?” “Do you think that makes sense? What problems do you see in his reply?” “Do you think this objection is substantial enough to undermine the whole argument, or just pose an interesting problem?” But be sure to wait until the reconstruction is solid before entering the critical stage.

And when all else fails, consider: What would Plato do? Good luck out there, fellow philosophers.

Composing Gratitude

"Gratitude unlocks the fullness of life. It turns what we have into enough, and
more. It turns denial into acceptance, chaos to order, confusion to clarity. It
can turn a meal into a feast, a house into a home, a stranger into a friend.
Gratitude makes sense of our past, brings peace for today and creates a vision for
tomorrow."
-Melody Beattie
As Stanford students busy with classes, sports, volunteer work and a slew of other
activities, we often see writing as a necessary task, rather than a leisure activity. I
know the feeling because I am swamped with midterms, papers and problem sets,
and even as a writing tutor I often forget that I love to write. However, I recently
read the book Simple Abundance by Sarah Ban Breathnach, and was re-inspired
to start writing. The book is a series of short essays, one for each day of the year,
which emphasize finding oneself and the importance of a strong sense of self. One
of the first tasks mentioned in the book is to keep a gratitude journal. Breathnach
is so adamant about how her gratitude journal changed her life that she swears the
simple abundance path will only work for those who keep one. She insists that the
more one gives thanks for everyday, the more one will receive, creating a positive
cycle. While I was not fully convinced after having read the book, I decided to give
the gratitude journal a try. So far I have not noticed any more physical abundance in
my life, but I do feel like it has become much easier for me to see the good in most
situations. Most importantly, I feel reconnected to myself and to my love of writing.
The act of writing in a gratitude journal allows me to have a conversation with my
inner self and to learn more about my likes and dislikes. Try it out, it might just help
you realize that writing has other uses besides PWR and IHUM papers!

Jessica Guenther

Introductory Paragraphs

Introductory paragraphs are important because they determine how a reader approaches the rest of your writing. They set your tone and trajectory and outline the argumentative context in which your reader understands everything else you say in your paper. In addition, introductions can help you focus your ideas and frame your arguments. Here are some things to look for in an introduction. They are not hard-and-fast rules, but are common and successful choices.

1. Open by introducing your work and the context in which you wish to discuss it. Many papers include the title and/or author of the work - but don't make the mistake of thinking of this as a "general" introduction to the work you are analyzing. (DON'T, for example, start by telling us when the author wrote his paper, unless that is pertinent to your argument in some way). From the start, your introduction should move us towards a unique claim about the work you are discussing. 

2. Establish an argument. Once you have introduced your work, you can start to argue about it. IHUM professors often ask for theses that "someone could disagree with." This means that your thesis should not be self-evident or plot summary, but you should also avoid theses too close to an argument your professor or TF has made (though it seems like they take all of the good ones!). At first it can seem daunting to try to think of an argument that is neither obvious nor patently false, but you would actually be surprised what one can get away with arguing. That's because literary analysis is less about right and wrong answers and more about understanding works in different ways. As you develop your own unique argument, statements of perspective that begin "We can think of this work as ..." are good places to start, although you may ultimately want to frame your argument more firmly, asserting that your perspective accurately characterizes the literature in question.

3. Frame your paper. The end of your introduction serves not only to present your position, but to prepare your audience to hear your position defended in your paper. You do your audience a favor when you show them how your paper will be organized - this allows them to understand the context and purpose of the rest of the paper as they read it. For this reason, the end of an introduction can sometimes resemble a miniature version of its paper, outlining. However, don't try to place your entire paper in the introductory paragraph (it won't fit) and don't be afraid to leave arguments or conclusions for the end of your paper, especially if they will make more sense after your body paragraphs.

A sample introductory paragraph is pasted below. It is by no means perfect, but does include the qualities listed above:

1. The paragraph begins with an introduction to The Odyssey that is specific to the argument of the paper. It's initial observation (The Odyssey is about returns) is not really argumentative, but already frames The Odyssey in a way relevant to the paper's main point.

2. The paragraph then moves towards a unique argument that could be disagreed with. (Odysseus and Telemachos must fix themselves rather than develop themselves)

3. Then the paragraph suggests a structure in which this claim could be defended. From the last few sentences, we might guess that the paper will follow the following general pattern: (Telemachos must defeat his insecurity > Odysseus must defeat his hubris > Once they have internally cleanses themselves, the heroes can cleanse Ithaca).

Although much of the daring-do of The Odyssey occurs on high seas and foreign soil, the eventual goal throughout the poem is a return to normalcy. Odysseus and Telemachos, in particular, must redeem Ithaca by bringing order to their house, getting rid of Penelope's suitors, and re-establishing Odysseus’ pre-eminence. Since this fundamental action is one of restoration rather than creation, it is fitting that the internal character transformations of the Odyssey should also be redemptive. As Odysseus and Telemachos attempt to restore Ithaca, their rites of passage require them not to expand themselves or develop novel virtues, but to rid themselves of vices that have perpetuated the discord of the past twenty years. Before he can reunite with his father, Telemachos is compelled to cast off the doubt and insecurity that have developed during his fatherless childhood. Likewise, Odysseus cannot re-establish his household until he has overcome his hubris and distrust of others. Only after Odysseus and his son have purged their own vices can they cleanse Ithaca and leave a period of their lives marked with war, chaos, and hardships.

How to Conquer IHUM

In IHUM courses, you can expect to have at least two papers during the quarter, the second a little longer than the first. You might also write a final paper OR take a final exam that includes an essay portion. That’s a lot of writing! Here are some tips to help you succeed:

1. Make sure you understand the prompt
TF’s say that the #1 problem they see in essays is misinterpretation of the prompt – so make sure you ask your TF what the questions mean!
2. Go to Office Hours
Some of the best academic advice you’ll ever receive – TF’s have office hours a few times a week, and can even meet with you outside of their normal office hours. Bring your thesis to office hours, and they’ll tell you how to improve it. This can be especially important since different TA's look for different things when they read papers. Friends and tutors don't always know what TF's are looking for - but they certainly do!
3. Focus on your thesis
Don’t spend too much time on style, at least up front. What matters most is your thesis – TF’s want to see an original, thoroughly proven thesis (so, again, make sure you run your thesis by your TF before you write your essay!) 

• To come up with a more original thesis, ask yourself a few questions before you look at the prompt….What bothered you about the book? What interested you? What surprised you? Then, look at the prompt, and see if any of ideas that came to mind would work well in the essay questions.
• To thoroughly prove your thesis, make sure you only use textual evidence (no outside knowledge or universal claims). There is no “correct” answer to an essay prompt – your task is to prove your ideas with critical thinking and textual evidence.

4. Write in a concise, organized style that fits your subject matter
Write with precise language – IHUM TF’s don’t want to read a flowery essay. Each subject has its own style (an English paper will be written in a much different style than, say, a philosophy paper. If you’re unfamiliar with your IHUM subject, ask your TF about how to write your paper in the correct style.) 
In general, your introduction should simply consist of a few sentences to give your thesis a context. Make sure that, at the end of every body paragraph, you write a sentence that directly ties in the point of that paragraph to your thesis. Helpful hint: if you’re having trouble thinking of a conclusion, a good strategy is to think of a counter-argument to your thesis, and then disprove it in your conclusion.
5. See a Writing Tutor!
We’re FREE, available all over campus, and can help you with anything – even if you just need to discuss some ideas or would like a second pair of eyes to look over your essay for clarity. Visit hwc.stanford.edu to learn more, and sututor.stanford.edu to schedule an appointment!